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  B. Landsberger
Basic questions of the early history of the Near East
(Grundfragen der Frühgeschichte Vorderasiens)

This text is a reprint of the article
Grundfragen der Friihgeschichle Vorderasiens
Türkischer Geschichtskongress, Devlet Basımevi, Istanbul, 1937.
 

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Kemal Balkan Relations between the language of the Gutians and Old Turkish

Editorial Introduction

The article of B. Landsberger, 1937, is a precursor of the Kemal Balkan's work “Relations Between The Language Of The Gutians And Old Turkish”.

Page numbers are shown at the beginning of the page in blue as reprinted in the Kemal Balkan's article. Posting notes and explanations, added to the text of the author, are shown in (blue italics) in parentheses and in blue boxes, or highlighted by blue headers. Some misspellings should be expected.

B. Landsberger
Basic questions of the early history of the Near East
(Grundfragen der Frühgeschichte Vorderasiens)
66

From excavations and studies, the world of the pre-Greek antiquity is materializing before our eyes. The world history has extend for at least another 2500 years if we start with the first appearance of the written sources. At several points in Mesopotamia and Anatolia the history can be read layer after layer, showing emergence of the higher culture. The ageless popular desire to penetrate human origins comes to a better satisfaction, without resorting to envisioning a primitive state, especially common in the end of the 19th c. science. Today, the knowledge of that basic process teases every desire to illuminate the blank moments of the barren history. Can the science of early antiquity give answers that really satisfy this urge for knowledge? Let me analyze the complex of problems related to this fundamental question, initially by some methodological considerations, and then, if only sketchy, reinforce it by some examples!

A search for common terms appropriate to organize our material offers us a number of initial tools which application has long been fruitful for scientific progress; they are part of the standard considerations derived mostly from the philosophy of history. The heuristic principle is most valuable, it means: test their applicability in the research process and seek to continuously confirm clear applicability. Nowdays to the fore strongly comes the concept of race, which joins two aspects: it claims not only a continuity from the farthest times to the present day, while aiming to gain knowledge about wholeness of body and mind by assigning intellectual properties to certain physical types. (This is a German Professor-Assyrologist speaking in 1937, first lip service is to race that does not show up anywhere else in his linguistic report)

Another term, which we can not free ourselves that underlies our entire research as an intellectual and intuitive form is that of the development. Its root is in the Hegel philosophical thought. According to Hegel, the history of the entire humanity is a wholesome process of the component ideas according to a certain law of progress. Later, the history of mankind was connected with the rest of the organic world, with a higher synthetic unity of substance and form applicable to the development of the whole organic world.
67

The end of the 19th century was thus dominated by a more or less schematic evolutionism: one direction presented at the beginning of the developmental series self-constructed and designed by African-Australian pattern primitives; a different direction led all of the intellectual property of civilized humanity Zuriick on mental primordial cells, such as the so-called Panbabylonismus. He lost the cultures into individual elements, which he traced to the author, the Sumerians. How much truth inherent in these theories, is for the time being undecided, just enough to be underlined that through them a scientific conceptual apparatus was developed, which was indispensable for the understanding of alien worlds, the applied for the first time vergkichende method played a crucial role.

If we try to pack only the sharp dark background floating in evolutionism concept of world history, it becomes apparent that there is a possibility to track human progress in large lines. The invention of the potter's wheel, the extraction and alloy of copper, the introduction of the horse, the creation of money are stages of world history course, each of them represents a revolution of the whole civilized humanity had to participate. But even more difficult is this generally comprehensive aspect in the intellectual sphere. Certainly, the first imprinting of the scientific concept that was created on anatolisckem bottom of the Ionian philosophers, thinking of mankind for ail future changed radically; but it is equally certain that such an elaboration of us are still accessible for intemational movements is only a reduction scheme and says nothing about the real content of the cultures that were affected by these revolutions is.

Fruitful than this unit aspect is the morphological Betrachtongsweise, which looks at the different cultures in the image of a living organism, thus illustrating the story as a stândiges and decay.

All of these perspectives are entitled to a certain extent, but they work for the researchers restrictive, by directing his gaze from vomherein in a certain direction and assume certain conditions as given in their Anvvendung. Search "ar However, after a general and unconditional possible e, so we can turn itself to a direction of research, \68\ which I would call spiritual Anthropologic call. Your only requirement is that imagining and thinking of people of all places and time has come aknlich that you compare it with the can compare and understand our therethrough; however, our understanding of this has its limits.
68

In the first stage, the spiritual Anihropologie deals with the description and comparison of the phenomena that it does not consider possible from the outside, Segregate by seeking to penetrate into the thinking of Kulturtrâger itself and analyzes for the various phenomena related to the disposal Names and Ausdraecke.

Next, however, the spiritual science of the last decades, the conviction ground broken, that the individual phenomena are characterized understandable and explainable, that they be taken as parts of a whole, in other words, it has everywhere the accepted fact that we proceed from the phenomenon must the structure.

We meet this demand by us first determine the structure of language, and so we have already gained essential for the understanding of the culture; because the structure of the language is identical or at least in parallel with the thought. The thought of Humboldt that Kuitur is already determined in most areas ihrçr by the language is reached in the last years of our research back to high esteem. But not ail of which may be convinced that we have in the structure of language at the same time a higher concept of structure, valid for any other factors branches of culture obtained.

We content ourselves initially with iwei Fordemngerv. 1) that we penetrate through continuing dialectic confrontation with the forms of thought and basic concepts of foreign culture as deep as possible in her understanding; 2) that we only compare cultures with each other when we have already recorded their structure. These two requirements are best worked through methodically in the field of comparative law, the turvergleichungen of alien Kul, in large part already fulfilled. Here the unity between legal structure, social and economic structure is often palpable. For example, the phenomenon of marriage by purchase is explained by the structural concept of the family in its specific imprinting, in which the father is owner of the family members.
69

However, the current highly unterschâtzte their significance structural analysis of languages ​​also leads us far back in the thousands of years of history and thus gives us the diachronic unity conceptual language. It turns out that certain basic forms of intuition and thought from time immemorial have survived to the present day. But has a language changed its structure, that is for us an indication of a historical movement, be it from the inside out, whether through outer influence that has gewandeit the thinking of the speech community. Sorry language and history are not yet wuenschenswerten the unit, as sought by us, together.

Once we have established the principle above, that the comparison of different cultures Einzelphânomenen has only preparatory value, is pronounced with the fact that the introduction of us in its various configurations sketched world-historical aspect of the story by the Strukturiehre entirely new research conditions shall read.

What is and what to crops nationally and internationally, now let's be captured sharp. Excitation, influencing, borrowing between individual cultures are only now within reach, because we can now observe their strukturândemde effect.

Likewise, I have already mentioned the great movements that take any points from their starting and passing through a culture world wide scale can, dignified by their strukturandemde effect in their meaning. Whether it has already been such a spiritual kind except the profound economic movements in time, which employs us, is not ruled today. An intellectual movement that went through the whole of Western Asia, was undoubtedly the Ubemahme the Sumerian writing, but in its consequences, it seems to have led to more mixing phenomena at the other cultures to basic changes in the structure of thought. Other spiritual movements such as the early spread of the cult of MultergoUheit, later extending everywhere against the official religion penetrating prevalence of sun worship or shake the foundations of religion by a prophecy about the year 900 we see not yet clear.
70

So the Sirukturbegriff brings order to the morphoiogischen fıobleme of cultural research, and we can schüesslich the stock of Kulturforraen. and suicidal thoughts, which is consistent entered into humanity tradition \70\ aussondem and thereby grasp the concept of wide-story sharp. If we always had the feeling in our employment shall Mesopotamia and Anatolia, that this is> the difference about China, but even by Egypt nich merely to anthropological, Segregate is world-historical Forshung, so we can use this dunkie feeling an inner relationship with these cultures now replace the exact proof of cultural tradition.

The knowledge of the structure of a culture and the attempt to penetrate the individual structures of the various cultural areas at a higher concept of structure that characterizes the whole culture in question, has of course presupposes that written, understandable sources are the different types of texts belonging and available in sufficient quantity. 1st this is not the case, we speak of a Red.uktionsschema. With such a we must be content in Mesopotamia until about 2500, in Anatolia until about 1500. There are, in Mesopotamia since 3500 written sources in Anatolia around 2000 a rich Literatür kind of economic history, but these sources are not versatile enough naturgemâss to build a structure image of them.

The culture researcher who must be content with such one-sided orientational source material has the duty of the supplement. The main tool of this supplement is projecting the Spâteren in the ancient past, a process that needs to be handled carefully. We are entitled to assume for Mesopotamia because of the identity of the persons name that linguistic and religious G ru nds tru ctu re of the Sumerian was making the transition from Ğemdet-Naşr period to the so-called fruehdynastiscken culture (which is around 3100) present; the other hand, we are allowed, although we still can watch for earlier periods a continuum of Scripture and even the schulmâssigen tradition of this writing, the later Sumerian culture not project in the period before 3100. On the question of Erganzbarkeit our sources, the Anatolian culture fuel by 2000 I will go into more.

Let us first consider the linguistic structure of the Sumerian, so reprâsen it predates the type of an extremely komplexiven language, ie: the sentence must, even before he uttered, in alien detailed structured to be present in the consciousness of the speaker, the em in schroffst contrast to the italic type of Sennhschen, the only aneinanderfuegt the outer and \71\ interen Eriebnisse when speaking. Thus, the Sumensche is not only phenomenological, Segregate probably kistorisch to a wide group of languages ​​that were spoken in the Gebirgsguertel that stretches through the middle of Asia. The only one still living Sprahfamilie this kind of importance are the Turkic languages.
71

"Talk" therefore means "order" for the Sumerians. The Sumensche is wurzelarm and produced his great wealth of object and Verbaibegriffen by the composition, for example: big man = king, see eye open =. But organize not only the basic function of speaking, Segregate also thinking of the Sumerians.

Their cultural achievement for it is but enstcheidend that they did not confine themselves Segregate that they capture with the conception of the greater whole of empirichen world for the first time in history a higher transcendent wholeness, namely, the cosmic unity of all existence. This cosmic world is not -and this is the grandest idea of ​​this ancient culture - an abstraction of the theologians, but she lives rooted in the empirical world. Their symbol is the temple of the Sumerian story had has an extremely important. World events taking place in accordance with divine orders because of formulas that have spoken the gods. Within the structure of society, the idea of ​​ordering realized in the durchgereifenden stan counting system in the form of the so called Staatssozialismust the only state in Freehold, knows only civil servants and subordinates.

By historical accident pushes a completely different kind of spiritual world, together with the Sumerian that the Semites. Your speech and thought is extremely italics; their language known only to a small extent the composition, for which they have a Überfuelle of roots with strong expressive power; their word formation follows certain Gestaitschemen, wordurch an implicit class discrimination of object and process concepts of Sprachblid controlled.

The Akkadians bowed reverently to the Sumerian mind, though Sle his deep thoughts more than suspected understood and always inclined 'varen to vergegenstândlichen them. Their language, they adapted to the Sumerian> by uebemahtnen the komplexiven sentence structure to some extent.
72

The mixture of these two cultures is one of the most interesting morphological phenomena. She has voilzogen in different phases, \72\ the first is in the prehistoric darkness. A vvirkliche appropriation of the Sumerian took place only in the lower spheres of thought; by this is a higher level, in which the Sıımerische was not translatable. In the Sumerian erwahnte Staatsjorm the Akkadians have inserted several centuries, but the tradition according to which the company is built on the family structure and the reprasentierten by the Council of Manner community is never lost entirely. With new Semitic immigration supports the free citizen is finally taken the place of the Sumerian officers and subordinates shortly before 2000.

The Akkadians however, is to thank the Sumensche was verstandlichgemacht the other Volkem the Middle East. The Akkadian scribes were the emissaries of the Sumerian culture in its simplified form and vergegenstândlichten.

Already made early formed around Mssopotamien a ring of countries, the cuneiform had acquired. All these peoples erkan nth to as the Babylonians, the Sumerian Ordnungsiehre. The Sumerian myths had it for quite persuasive. The last Auslâufer this remote effect of the Sumerian we see in the first chapters of the Alien Testament, most palpably in the Flood story borrowed from the Sumerians.

Of all these Völkem that lehten in the circumference of the Sumerian culture, I can not talk here. I can not examine their linguistic structure in the ratio of Sumerian, nor how they have adopted the Sumerian culture and interwoven with their national cultures. So I am not talking about Elamiern, Subaraern, Lullubâern, Kassites. Only one of these people I will pick out two reasons: initially it is the defeat of the Akkadian Semites by this people to thank (after 2500) that the Sumerertum has experienced a Nachblueteperiode of more than three centuries; in it the Sumerian spirit has found its abgeklartesten expression, as in the person of Gudea, at its end is the Sumerian literary canon, has been put into writing the brink of extinction Sumerian as a living language, so that the last main reception of the Sumerian material through the Baby could Ionians versatile and thoroughly proceed. This nation of Gutium or Kutium whose name we can recognize them as Kut after stroke Quaint Akkadian Nisbe is, but if not obese signs \73\ companies had, by far the oldest occurred in our history tribe that used I with the Turks closely, perhaps is identical.
73

The only thing that has been preserved by the kutaischen language, are some names of kings. We see from those from which were already akkadisiert in the mouth of the population of Babylonia, so even bieibt a j dozen, v and of these only four that gleichzetig, ie about 2500. Chr. Are written down, while the rest of the order rnehrere centuries spâteren literary tradition come, the error does not exclude.

Consider first the outer construction of these names (1*), so we find- * en the laws of vowel harmony and the Turkish word formation preserves it. Further, a part of it let unsehwer as Türks understand verbal adjective ending with -gan or -agon (A 1.2); -miš (B 1); -is (B 2); the verbal suffix -ti appears to contain B 10. This serves to verbalization of nouns infix -la seems in A 1, B 3, 4 and 6 to be present. A participle in -ap or with the fiir the Turkic languages ​​as typical Hiatustilger on -agap, by the name of A 4 and B 3 and 4 is, indeed knows today's Turkish not, but rather the older dialects. The nominal ending -lak we find in A. 3

We further investigate the Woristamme, it is both yar how I yarla to be completed for A 1; meaning "Herald" out of the question; I Yarlagan reminiscent of the attested in the Orkhon inscription personal names Yargan.

A 2 Tirigan is formally properly, let it out to be "the Stiitzende" understand and remember "excellent" at uigurish tiriga.

The name A 3 has the most probative because Sarlak or Çarlak in several dialects as Tiemame testifies (both mammalian like bird).

A good sense are also B 1 El-ulumiş as enhancer of the country, B 2; Inima-Bakış Let, be construed as Turkish, verschiedentliche to interpretation.

1* My colleagues from Gabain and Raszonyi have freundliehst advise me.
74

From a language that age is more than 3000 years than the previous oldest testimony from her family, we are allowed not expect that all phenomena smooth Add into the schema of the language or even etymologically readily understandable. So was also drawn to the Schwiengkeiten: the name B 6 is an extension of A 1, he \74\ shows a suffix -da, which seems to mean ^ ugekörigknt. A 4 has a with ı beginning tribe: the element Nikil of B 3 is still incomprehensible, the name B make 7 and 8 zvvar their structure, no un - liirkischen Eindruch, but neither with any degree of certainty to analy si ng to understand yet. I allow myself this material Türkologie submit to a check and they may decide whether the names by sound shape, form and strain elements allow the inclusion in the turquoise before language family or whether you have to take for their declara with Effolg the entfemter related Altaic languages.

The tacular have after 2500 the dynasty Major semilisehen kings of Akkad overthrown and ruled 125 years over Mesopotamia.

Since the Sumerian culture, both in its organisehen connection with the Akkadian as well selbstândig and unvermiseht as higher education layer showed an extraordinary vitality and received over the millennia without toppling change its structure, then the estimates given here highlights the essence of Babylomertums of 3000 up to the birth of Christ characterized to some extent. Can we give a similar characteristic of the Anatolian see being? This question let yourself nâherbringen only provided with reservation of a solution.

Before the cuneiform sources were tapped, the shape of the Muttergotiheil and its affiliated passionate nature cults his Syrian neighborhood seemed including for all this land since time immemorial characteristic. Although this gave us about cults make quite the impression that they were rooted since ancient times in the land, but so far we could maybe in the cuneiform sources n find right.

Numerous Volker waves flooded over the country, also has the sumensek culture at different times Anatolia strongly captivated. For the first time this than to 2000-1900 was by Assyrian handler and the writers in their wake the cuneiform. in the country ge 'introduced and was received by the local population in part: the court of the Great King Anitas of Kusara you wrote about this time Assyrian, and not much later must Babylonian writing and with her Sumerian scholarship at the Hittite king's court a colorful zusammer * diced Gotterwelt rearranged, the Anatolian look for, Hittite, Babylonian Göttero raischen and made up, at least the is not to reject \75\ Verrnutung readily that the urspruengl.ichen, bodenstândigen religious forces of the vast country characterized remained untouched.
75

Let us examine an action before the few sources for the Anatolian religion and to 2000. We find initially that Anatolia is the only country where the primeval idol worship directly, has developed without interference by Literatür or theology, a higher religion. This line of development Let be demonstrated by a female deity whose worship extends from Troy to the Khabur. Through the research of Opitz, Przeworski and Bittel this archaeological type was detected. If this goddess is also provided with some trendy clothes if you occasionally of male partner is also begotten, sometimes even a child as their origin from an ancient idol type LET still recognize the significant emergence of sexual characters yet. We are allowed to raise this figure as the uranatolische mother of the gods?

For this an indication comes another. At the time of the Assyrian trading colonies one of the most important, even-received by the Assyrem deities was the goddess Gubaba. Her cult was to the east again to Syria and as far as the Khabur, distributed, how far she handed to the west, dafeur lack the resources (as the mânnlichen partner of this goddess we are allowed to maybe look at the god mentioned by the Assyrians king of the country, to was worshiped in the area of ​​the middle Euphral out).

Next, it should not be a fallacy if we zuweissen this Gubaba the Bevolkerungsschicht who belongs to the majority of the personal names of the local population by 2000. This population was not proto chat shows; we can say that although we know very little of Protochatiischen yet, because the Fernininsuffix of Protochattixhen and our uranatolischen language differ (one hand ~ ak> On the other hand -Sara) likewise, the Nisbe {proto chat shows -il, in our language -umn) , To our language we might alsbezeichnen mations ^ eni but also includes the suffix -anda and probably also the suffix -assa whose expansion over the southern strip of Anatolia until after Grienechenland long ago observed, the daughter of a Aplahanda unveils its seal of goddess Gubaba. But now no one will doubt that Gubaba is identical mil cubeb, the Hauptgottin of the Lydian Sardis, which means Reprasentantin the type of Mother Goddess at the Lydians. This \76\ facts already give us at least some justification, to refer to the form of the mother goddess as uranatolisch. Although perhaps Anatolia was a province of a much larger area of ​​distribution, yet this cult is alive here, not only without fault, Segregate also remained central.
76

So can we now say with some degree of probability that the nature of religion as it is attested from later time for Anatolia, is an ancient well, so we have to make emeut the question of how the peculiar about the whole of Western Asia widespread nature cults zusammenhângen with each other. Not only that the figure of the mother goddess, always a little off standing of the pantheon of great gods, even at the Sumerem place: throughout the Middle East is also the cult of Stmes, the stamp of the god Assur, for example, in tern, in Babylonian temples , was worshiped in Canaan and Syria. But the motif of the dying and rising god with his passionate complaints and joyous celebrations is known throughout the Middle East; the emasculation of the cult priests of this god partner can also be detected in the Sumerem. There is no reason, however, for the fact that these cults are an unorganized scatterings within the Sumerian religion, but also the derivation of the Sumerian where the mythology of these gods was very soon by means of literature and thus deprived of their originality, is ruled out. Similarly behaves, it deals with the distribution of the shape of the weather god. Are we entitled to use it to infer kültürelle context, the rich back in femste time immemorial? Is there really something like an ancient religion that still prevails again and again against all literarization and against all theologizing? Such questions can only hint at today, but still not near Run.

As also the relationships between the Near East M 'turkulten be clear up once, but that's for sure, that get w Anatolia in an uninhibited development stream the old U rk ra ft of nature gods up in spate times or at least, if at times the literary neighboring cultures beinflussten the country, has prevailed over again, long ago after baby in knees by L ite rar tio n is the originality of this religious forces had already been lost, Langsi after zealous prophet in Israel by the last remnants of Na turreligion were wiped out. Yes, these forces were currently del Romer so vivid that tired religions newly rejuvenated from it.
77

The question of whether the old mother goddess as form and as an idea the wall el crop has over take and still lives in Madonna cults, I just want to raise as well just remember that trailer a evoiutionistischen religious history the subject of the dying and mferstehenden God or the track with this set in mystical communion to people in the pre- and post-Christian mystery religions and view at least, as an important stimulus in the direction of the central ideas of Christianity.

This brings me to the question of the epistemological value of our studies back, with which I began this lecture. The course of history is as diverse and complex that you can wear him out with a one-sided theory, neither with the evolutionism even with the circuit doctrine. Stândiges and decay on the one hand, Stay and persistence on the other hand do not exclude each other, Segregate are antinomies, which, rich tig played delimits our science befmchten. Likewise, anthropological and world-historical study do not exclude each other; but it is our duty to win by precise and methodical Uberlegung stândige preservation of our basic concepts of the individual research IClarheit about our conditions. We are also in the study of the most ancient periods, as well as the extreme of an artificial carried into the substance update vermeiaen as the other, the mindless accumulation dead matter.

Prof. LANDSBERGER

Beilage zu Blatt 13 - 15

A. In gleichzeitigen Quellen Überîieferte Namen:
1. Yarlagan;
2. Tirigan;
3. Ŝarlak oder Ĉarlak;
4. Lasirap oder Laŝirap.

B. In den Königslisten (ca. 2000 redigiert) ueberlieferte Name:*
1. Elulumeş;
2. Inimabakeş; **
3. Nikillagap;***
4. Warlagaba****, Variante ϓarlagap;
5. Yarla (dazu wohl schlechte Variante Yarlagaš. wahrscheinlich Uberlieferungsfehler fuer A 1: Yarlagan);
6. Yarlaganda (erster Buchstabe erganzt);
7. Tiriga, Fehler fuer A 2: Tirigan;
8. Ingişu oder Inkişu;
9. Igeşauş (dazu schlechte Variante Ig-auş):
10. Ibate oder Ibati;
11. x-y (zwei weggebrochene Zeichen) -nedin.

Der Vokal ı ist in der Keilschrift nicht ausdriickbar; er scheint duirh e wiedergegeben zu werden (2*). Auch ç kann nicht in der Keilschrift geschrieben werden, es duerfte durch ş ersetzt worden sein.

1* These personal names treated by Jacobsen in Sumerian King List, p. 118 as follows:
** I-ni-ma-ba-ki-es (line 34)
*** Sar-lagab-la-gab (line 3]) (for this line cf. Jacobsen, Ibid, p. 118, note 291).
**** Ya-ar-la-gab (line 36).
2* Die Keilschrift unterscheidet nicht immer zwischen e und i. Wenn die Regeln der Vokalhannonie für unsere Namen gelten sollen, müessen auch einzelne i meiner Umschrift als ı gelesen werden.
79

 
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Coins
Datelines
Overview of Sarmatian chronology
Saltovo-Mayak Culture
Ogur and Oguz
Scythians
Alans
Kipchaks
Balkan K. Relations between language of Gutians and Old Turkish
Landsberger B. Basic questions of the early history of the Near East

Landsberger B. Grundfragen der Frühgeschichte Vorderasiens
Guties and Zhou portrait
P.N. Stearns “Zhou Culture”
Keightley D. Synopsis of Zhou story
Alan Dateline
Avar Dateline
Besenyo Dateline
Bulgar Dateline
Huns Dateline
Karluk Dateline
Khazar Dateline
Kimak Dateline
Kipchak Dateline
Kyrgyz Dateline
Sabir Dateline
Seyanto Dateline
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